MICRO TEACHING AND TEACHING SKILLS
T. C. Thankachan M.A (Pol.), M.A (Socio.), M. Ed, M.Phil
Lecturer, St. Thomas College of Teacher Education, Pala
Micro-teaching is one of the most recent innovations in teacher training programme. It aims at modifying teacher’s behaviour according to the specified objectives. It was first introduced at the Stanford University in 1961. It is a training procedure aiming at simplifying the complexities of the regular teaching process. In a micro-teaching procedure, the trainee is engaged in a scaled down teaching situation. It is scaled down in terms of class size, class time and teaching task.
A teacher can use several techniques and procedures to bring about effective learning on the part of his students. These activities include introducing the lesson, demonstration, explaining or questioning. These activities form what are called teaching skills. Micro-teaching allows practicing any skill independently and integrating it with other skills in familiar environment.
Definitions
Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter, in class size and class time.(Allen D.W.)
Micro-teaching is a system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching skills and to practise teaching under controlled conditions.(Allen & Eve).
Micro-teaching is a training technique which requires student teachers to teach a single concept using specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils in a short duration of time.(B.K.Passi & Lalitha M.S.)
Phases of Micro Teaching
Clift (1976) described the following as the phases of micro teaching.
1. Pre-active phase (knowledge acquisition phase)
2. Interactive phase (skill acquisition phase)
3. Post-active phase (Transfer phase)
Phase I. pre – active phase: it emphases the understanding of the teaching skill that is to be learnt by the teacher trainee. It envisages the following steps
Orientation to micro teaching.
Discussion of teaching skills with their components and teaching behaviour.
Presentation of modern demonstration lesson by the teacher educator.
Observation of the model lesson and criticism by the teacher trainee.
Phase II. interactive phase: the main objective of this phase is to enable the teacher trainee to practice the teaching skill following micro teaching cycle. The steps are:
Preparation of micro- lesson plan for the related teaching skill.
Creating microteaching settings.
Practice of teaching skill.
Feedback.
Re-planning.
Re-teaching.
Repetition of the micro teaching cycle.
Phase III. Post active phase: the main objective of this phase is to enable the teacher trainee to integrate the teaching skill in real or normal class room situation. Integration of teaching skill may be defined as process of selections organization and utilization of different teaching skills to form an effective pattern for realizing the specified instructional objectives in a teaching learning situation.
Steps in Micro Teaching
1. Orientation of the student teachers : It involves providing necessary information and theoretical background about micro teaching on the following aspects : 1. concept of micro teaching. 2. significance of using micro teaching. 3. procedures of micro teaching micro . 4. requirements and setting for adopting micro teaching technique.
2. Discussion of teaching skills : In this step the concept of teaching skill is clarified to the teacher trainee . He develops knowledge and understanding about : 1. analysis of teaching into different component teaching skills.2. significance of these skills in classroom teaching. 3.component teaching behaviours of different teaching skills.
3. Selection of a particular teaching skill : The teacher trainee selects a particular teaching skill for practice.
4. Presentation of a model demonstration lesson : A demonstration lesson in that particular teaching skill is presented before the teacher trainee. This stage is known as modelling. Demonstration Can be given in a number of ways.
- By exhibiting a film or a video tape.
- By making them to listen an audiotape.
- By arranging a demonstration lesson from a live model ie by the teacher educator or some expert.
- By providing written material such as hand book, guide etc.
5. Observation of the model lesson and criticism. : An observation schedule is designed for the observation of the lesson and is distributed to the teacher trainee. A critical appraisal of the model lesson is made by the student teachers on the basis of the observation and analysis.
6. Preparation of micro lesson plan : For practicing the demonstrated teaching skill the student teacher prepares a micro lesson plan. For this he may take guidance and help from the teacher educator, books etc.
7. Creation of micro-teaching setting : The Indian model of micro-teaching developed by NCERT gives the following setting. - no. of pupils - 5-10
- type of pupils - real pupils or preferably peers
- type of supervisors - teacher educators or peers.
- Time duration for micro-teaching lesson –6 minutes
- Time duration for micro-teaching cycle – 36 minutes
This duration is divided as :
Teaching – 6 minutes
Feedback - 6 minutes
Re-plan – 12 minutes
Re-teach – 6 minutes
Re-feedback –6 minutes
8. Practice of the Skill: Under this step the student teacher teaches a micro-lesson to a micro-class. This lesson is observed by the teacher educator and the peer group with the help of the appropriate observation schedule. The lesson can be recorded using an audiotape or video tape.
9. Feedback: immediate feedback is given by the teacher educator and the peer group.
10. Re-planning; on the basis of the feedback the student teacher re-plans the lesson. He is given 12 minutes for this purpose.
11. Re-teaching
12 Re-feedback
13. Repetition of the micro-teaching cycle
14. Integration of the skills.
Micro Teaching cycle
The six steps generally involved in micro-teaching cycle are Plan, teach, Feedback, Replan, Reteach, Refeedback. There can be variations as per requirement of the objective of practice session. These steps are diagramatically represented in the following figure:
Plan Teach
Re-feedback Feedback
Re-teach Re-plan
The components of the microteaching cycle are shown in Figure. The Microteaching cycle starts with planning. In order to reduce the complexities involved in teaching, the student teacher is asked to plan a "microlesson" i.e a short lesson for 5-10 minutes which he will teach in front of a "microclass” i.e a group consisting 5-10 students, a supervisor and peers if necessary. There is scope for projection of model teaching skills if required to help the teacher prepare for his session. The student teacher is asked to teach concentrating one or few of the teaching skills enumerated earlier. His teaching is evaluated by the students, peers and the supervisor using cheekists to help them. Video recording can be done if facilities permit. At the- end of the 5 or 10 minutes session as planned, the teacher is given a feedback on the deficiencies noticed in his teaching methodology. Feedback can be aided by playing back the video recording. Using the feedback to help himself, the teacher is asked to replan his lesson keeping the comments in view and reteach immediately the same lesson to another group. Such repeated cycles of teaching, feedback and reteaching help the teacher to improve his teaching skills one at a time. Several such sequences can be planned at the departmental level. Colleagues and postgraduate students can act as peer evaluators for this purpose. It is important, however, that the cycle is used purely for helping the teacher and not as a tool for making a value judgement of his teaching capacity by his superiors. Time duration for micro-teaching cycle – 36 minutes. This duration is divided as : teaching – 6 minutes, Feedback - 6 minutes, Re-plan – 12 minutes, Re-teach – 6 minutes, and Re-feedback –6 minutes.
Characteristics of micro teaching
1. It is a teacher training technique and not a teaching method.
2. It is a real teaching, though the teaching SITUATION IS SIMULATED.
3. In micro teaching teacher trainee practices one a specific teaching skill at a time, till he/she attains mastery over the skill.
4. It is a scale down teaching encounter in class size, content, class time.
5. It operates on a predefined model. Plan, teach, feedback, re- plan, re- teach, re-feedback, etc.
6. It allows for increased control of practice by providing feedback to the teacher trainee.
7. It is not a substitute but a supplement to the teacher training programme.
8. It is a cyclic process. The pre decided model is repeated till the trainee achieves the expected level of mastery.
9. It is a highly individualized training device.
Uses of Micro Teaching
• Helps in reducing the complexities of the normal class room teaching.
• Helps the teacher trainee gain more confidence in real teaching,
• It creates among the teacher trainees an awareness of various skills of which teaching is composed of.
• It simulates the class room scene and gives the teacher trainee an experience of real teaching.
• It helps in systematic and objective analysis of the pattern of class room communication through specific observation schedule.
• It is more effective in modifying teacher behaviour.
• It is an effective technique for transfer of teaching competencies to the class room.
• It helps in getting acquainted with class room manners to a certain extent.
• Feedback enables the teacher trainee to consciously concentrate on specific behavioural modification.
• It helps the teacher trainees in better understanding of the meaning and concept of the term teaching.
Demerits
• Micro teaching is skill oriented and not content oriented.
• It covers only a few specific skills.
• Lack of material resources like video recording facility and trained supervisors.
• The question of integrating the skill is quite challenging.
• Teaching is not just a summation of teaching skills.
• Sufficient literature on micro teaching is not yet available.
Teaching Skills
Teaching skills are specific instructional activities and procedures that a teacher may use in the class room. (Gage 1968). Skill is an act of teaching. (Allen). A teaching skill is a group of teaching acts/ behaviours intended to facilitate pupils learning activity directly or indirectly.
Characteristics of Teaching Skills
Teaching skills have three basic components perception, cognition and action.
Teaching skills have three basic dimensions- non verbal behaviour, openness and nature of moves in teaching to which the skill belongs.
Some Teaching Skills
1. The skill of Questioning
2. The skill of Reinforcement.
3. The skill of probing.
4. The skill of explaining.
5. The skill of stimulus variation.
6. The skill of introducing a lesson.
7. The skill of illustrating with examples.
8. The skill of using blackboard.
9. The skill of silence and non verbal cues.
10. The skill of using audio – visual aids.
11. The skill of recognizing attending behaviour.
12. The skill of achieving closure.
Skill of Questioning
1. Lower Order Questions
Knowledge questions. In these questions the pupils recalls facts, make observations or gives definitions. These questions imply that pupils answers are from existing knowledge and are not expected to modify, develop or use their ideas.
2. Middle Order Questions
Comprehension and application questions. These questions ask pupils to apply known techniques or rules to solve problems. Process covered include comparison, translation, interpretation etc. these questions imply that pupils answer by making use of their existing knowledge and apply to new context.
Eg. Can you express this equation in words?
3. Higher Order Questions
Analysis, synthesis, evaluation questions. These questions ask pupils to go beyond what they know. Pupils are expected to answer by analyzing a problematic situation in terms of its constituent elements, by solving problems, making predictions, producing original communication ascertaining validity of ideas or judging or justifying artistic or other products. higher order questions are intended to engage pupils in the skill of thinking and of creating knowledge.
Skill of probing questions
If pupils respond inadequately or not at all to the higher order or middle order questions then the teacher can go deep into the students’ answers and try to elicit more correct answers and it is known as the skill of probing questions. These techniques have two main characteristics in common:
a. They are initiated by the teacher immediately after the student has responded.
b. They require the student to think beyond her/his initial response.
Components:
1. Seeking Clarification: the teacher may ask the student for more clarification or information, by saying: “What, exactly, do you mean?”, “Please rephrase that statement.”,. “Could you elaborate on that point?”, “What do you mean by the term…?”etc.
2. Increasing Students’ Critical Awareness; S/he wants the student to justify her/his response. eg. “What are you assuming?”. “What are your reasons for thinking that is so?”. “Is there more to it?”. “How would an opponent of this view respond?”
3. Refocusing: If a student has given a satisfactory response, it might seem unnecessary to probe it. However, the teacher could use this opportunity to refocus on a related issue. Eg.. “If this is true, what are the implications for…?”. “How does john’s answer relate to…?”. “Can you relate this to…?”. Let ‘s analyze that answer/comment.”
4. Prompting : Giving hints or clues to lead the students from no response or wrong response to correct response .sometimes the initial questions may be too difficult for children to answer. In such cases instead of abandoning the questions they can be modified possibly by breaking it down into parts giving clues or hints. They are prompting questions.
Eg. In a triangle, A=60, B=70, what is C
Prompting question: what is the sum of the angles of a triangle?
5. Redirection: Directing the same questions to other pupils when there is a wrong response, incomplete response, partially right response, or while prompting or while seeking further information and so on.
The Skill Reinforcement
Reinforcement constitutes one of the essential conditions of learning. Hence every teacher has to master the skill for adopting appropriate strategies for reinforcing the learners. This skill has to be exhibited by teachers in the manner in which they respond to the responses and actions of pupils. Reinforcement results in response modification and is based on the principle of feed back followed by immediate rewarding of desirable or correct responses and actions. Encouraging reactions of a teacher would strengthen and discouraging reaction would weaken pupils responses involved in the learning process. Hence teacher should manage his reactions to pupil response with skill.
The stimuli that provide or contribute to the pleasant experience are called positive reinforcement or desirable behaviours. While the stimuli providing unpleasant experience can be termed as negative reinforces. Thus in the class room teaching positive reinforces are used for strengthening the desirable responses of learners and negative reinforces for weakening or eliminating the undesirable responses or behaviours.
Components of the Skill of Reinforcement
1) Positive verbal reinforcement
Students can be motivated through verbal expressions like good, right, excellent, well done, fine, carry on, go ahead etc.
Using extra verbal clues like um, aha etc also will encourage pupils to encourage pupils to progress.
2) Positive non-verbal reinforcement
Teacher uses gestures or some other behaviour to reinforce pupils learning. Nodding of the head, smiling, patting, friendly look etc. are examples. Writing pupils answers on the blackboard for others to watch also can be an effective reinforcement.
3) Negative verbal reinforcement.
Words like wrong, incorrect, no, as well as sarcastic remarks can be considered as negative reinforcement.
4) Negative non-verbal reinforcement.
Disapproval without using words has the effect of negative reinforcement. Gestures such as frowning, staring, looking angrily, shaking the head, also have the same effect.
5) Denial of reinforcement
Certain teachers do not attempt reinforcement in situations that warrant it. This is likely to discourage pupils. Such teachers are really losing an opportunity to inspire pupils for active participation in the learning process.
6) Inappropriate use of reinforcement
Reinforces should be wisely selected by teachers. It should suit the nature of the response. Inappropriate use will lesser its effect.
The Skill of Stimulus Variation
Any external force that disturbs the equilibrium is known as stimulus. So by stimulus variation we mean the change n the intensity of the external force by a teacher while teaching. The skill of stimulus variation in other words means the regulation of stimuli by the teacher while teaching. Thus skill of stimulus variation may be defined as a set of observations for bringing desirable change or variation in the stimuli used to secure and sustain pupil’s attention towards class room activities.
It has been generally observed that children especially up to the age of 10 years are not able to attend to one thing for a long period. The effectiveness of the teaching learning process in such a situation depends to a great extent on the stimulus variation used by the teacher behaviour. Some of the common teacher behaviours in the class room which fall under variation are:
Movement of the Teacher in the class
This component of the skill helps in capturing and sustaining the attention of the class while teaching. Therefore the movement of the teacher in the class is of essential. But only meaningful movements are to be made. Thus a teacher while practicing the skill of stimulus variation should learn to make well planned meaningful movements for securing as sustaining the attention of students.
Gestures of the Teacher in the class
Gestures are non-verbal clues which enhance the value of the message. They are usually made with the help of the movement of the eye, hand, head, body, facial expressions, like extending the hands in a typical shape to indicate how big or small one object is.
Change of voice by the Teacher
It involves the variation in the tone, pitch or speed of his or her voice,to pay apecial attention to a particular point or sentence or paragraph while teaching. Variation of voice by the teacher is directly noted by the students and it has direct influence in capturing the attention of the students.
Focusing by the Teacher
The component of focusing of the skill of stimulus variation refers to the behaviours that help in focusing pupil’s attention on a particular object word, idea, rule, concept, method, formula or generalization during teaching.
To exercise the component of focusing by the teacher the following methodology is followed.
a) The use of verbal statements “look here in the map”, “it is important to note”
b) The use of gestures
c) The use of both verbal statements and non-verbal gestures.
Change in interaction styles by the Teacher
The process of teaching learning involves interaction. Change in interaction style means the change in the process of teaching learning. There are three main styles of interaction such as
a) Teacher pupils or teacher group interaction (teacher coveys or gets responses from the class or groups as a whole)
b) Teacher pupil interaction (here teacher communicates with an individual pupil.)
c) Pupil-pupil interaction here a teacher employs many pupils in a dialogue without doing direct discussion.
Pausing by the Teacher
Pausing refers to the behaviour related wit h introducing silence during teaching. A pause of approximately of 3 or 4 seconds is regarded as quite effective in securing and sustaining the pupils attention in the class while teaching.
Aural-Visual Switching
This behaviour refers to the introduction of the change or variation in the use of medium, from aural to visual, from visual to aural or a combination of aural and visual.
Physical Involvement of Students
This component of the skill of stimulus variation refers to the introduction of the change or variation in the types, forms and styles of the physical involvement of the pupil in the class. Sometimes they may be engaged in dramatizing and other times in writing on the blackboard, participating in the demonstration or handling some instrument or aid material etc.
Skill of using Black Board
The black board or chalkboard is the visual aid most widely used by teachers for class room interaction. It is one of the quickest and easiest means of illustrating an important point. No doubt teaching can be made effective by skillful use of blackboard. Matter once written on the blackboard can be erased easily and new materials added as the lesson progress. For the skillful use of blackboard teacher has to take care of three aspects.
Legibility of handwriting, Neatness in the blackboard work and Appropriateness
What the teacher writes on the blackboard should be legible enough to be read by pupils without any difficulty. Legibility of handwriting can be attained up to a satisfactory level if a teacher is careful about the distinctness of letters, their proper size, shape and slant, needed space between any two letters and words adequate size of small and capital letters. For neatness in the blackboard work a teacher may take care to see that words or sentences are written horizontal lines parallel to the base of the blackboard, with adequate space between the lines, that only the relevant matter which has been under focus of class room discussion is retained on the blackboard. For appropriateness of written work on the blackboard only the salient points as they are developed should be written in their logical sequence and continuity. The blackboard summary should be brief and simple so that the pupils can follow the whole lesson at a glance. For the purpose of focusing, underlining and use of coloured chalk may be employed judiciously. Illustrations and diagrams should be simple, clear and large enough to convey the ideas presented.
Additional points to be remember
• Check whether or not the BB is clear at the start of the lesson.
• Stand one side and do not come in between the pupils and BB
• Avoid squeaking noise of the chalk while writing.
• Avoid committing mistakes in the content written on the BB.
Stance: the most convenient place to stand is towards the left side of the chalkboard.
Holding chalk: impressive BB work depends upon the style of holding the chalk or writing instrument. For good BB work always take half stick of the chalk and hold between the thumb and forefinger so that an inch or less project.
Monday, April 12, 2010
Test Construction
TEST CONSTRUCTION - ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
The term achievement is often understood in terms of pupil’s score on a certain school test. Achievement means one’s learning attainments, accomplishments etc. it is related to pupil’s growth in educational situations. Achievement test is an important tool in the school evaluation programme. It is necessary for the teacher to know how far the pupils have attained in a particular subject area.
Types of achievement tests
Achievement tests are of two types. Teacher made tests and standardized tests. Teacher made tests may be divided into oral and written tests.
Teacher made achievement tests
a. Oral tests: it is the oldest form of achievement tests. They are common in lower classes. Viva Voce is an example. An advantage of this test is that a large number of areas can be covered and knowledge of the student can be assessed. But it is difficult to test each pupil on the basis of total curriculum .The examiner does not have any written proof regarding the pupil’s attainment.
b. Written tests: These can be divided into 3 types Essay type, Short answer type, and objective type.
FUNCTIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
• Provide basis of promotion to the next grade.
• Help in finding out at the beginning of the year where each student stands in the various academic areas.
• Help in determining the relative position of a student in a particular subject or area of learning.
• Help the teacher to sees for himself how effectively he is doing, what is getting across to pupils and what is not.• Helps the teacher in identifying pupil’s difficulties and arranging for remedial measures.
• Provides the teacher evidence relating to the realization of objectives, effectiveness of learning activities provided and mode of instruction employed.
• Motivate the students before a new assignment is taken up.
Characteristics of a good Achievement Test
• A good achievement test is tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.
• It should have a description of a measured behaviour.
• It should contain a sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviours.
• It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.
• It is accompanied by norms which are developed at various levels and on various age groups.
• Its instructions in regard to its administering and scoring are so clear that they become standardized for different users.
PREPARATION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST
If the test is to serve as an efficient and effective tool of evaluation its preparation should be based on a number of careful considerations. The preparation of a good test is a systematic process having well defined stages. The important steps envisaged in the preparation of a good achievement test are:
• Planning-preparation of Design and Blue- Print
• Designing the test items.
• Reviewing and editing.
• Arranging the items.
• Providing directions.
• Preparing the scoring key and marking scheme.
• Administering and scoring the test
• Evaluating the test
Planning the Test
Planning implies preparation of design for the test or preparation of blue print.
Preparation of Design
Designing is the first and most important step in the test construction. It is at this stage that we plan to build in the test the important qualities: validity, reliability, objectivity and practicality. In order to accomplish this, the test constructor has to take a number of decisions regarding selection of objective, the selection of the content, form of questions, the difficulty level of test items and the weightage to be allotted to them. The set of these decisions will be called the design of the test.
a) Identification of the objective and allotting weightage to the objectives
The most important step while planning a test or any evaluation tool is the identication of the instructional objectives and stating them in terms of specific observable behaviour .After the objectives are identified and stated, the test maker has to decide their relative weights in the test. The fundamental principle to be observed here is that the test should reflect the actual emphasis being given to various mental processes during instruction. The simplest basis for assigning the weights could be to weigh them in terms of time devoted for their achievement. Weightages could of course be given in numerical terms, distributing 100 points over the objectives, giving the greatest number to those that are to receive the greatest emphasis. Weightage to the Objectives
b) Selection of the content and allotting weightage to the content
Content being the means through which objectives are attained, it becomes very necessary to decide the weights to be given to its different parts. The importance of the unit, time devoted to it during instruction etc. will consider while giving relative weightage to units.
c) Selection of the form of questions and giving weightage to the questions
For testing different abilities and sub units different forms of questions-essay type, short answer type and objective type questions may be judiciously used. According to different objectives and different aspect of content the weightage to be given to each form should be decided the marks are allotted to each form in the basis of time needed for answering, difficulty level, and skill involving. However among the objective type questions multiple choice may be given more weightage.
d) Distribution of difficulty level
The distribution of difficulty level in a test will depend upon the purpose of the test as also on the group of students for whom it is designed to get optimum discrimination through a test; most of its questions should be of average difficulty level. A few easy questions, to motivate below average students and a few difficult ones to challenge the gifted.
e) Preparation of Blue Print
The preparation of the blue print refers to the final stage of the planning of a test. It is a document which gives a complete functional picture of the test. In other words a blue print is a three dimensional chart showing the weightage given to the objectives, content and the form of questions in terms of marks. The units or content spread along the vertical axis while the objectives are listed on horizontal axis. Each column is further subdivided into columns that indicate the forms of question. Thus we get a number of cells each cell having three dimensions, the objective, the content and the form of question. What is required on the part of the test maker is to fit in all the questions in different cells in such a way that the blue print reflects the decisions of the designer.
Uses of Blue Print
• Helps to improve the content validity of the test.
• Defines as clearly as possible the scope and emphasis of the test.
• Relates objectives to the content.
• It provides greater assurance that the test will measure learning outcomes and course content in a balanced manner.
Planning of the test will be completed by the preparation of design and blue print.
Designing the test items
Then comes to the framing of the test items according to the blue print. It is desirable to prepare more items than the requirement of the blue print (at least 20% excess) so that the test maker may be able to choose the best item to suit the allocation in the blue print.
Reviewing and Editing
The items can be reviewed with the help of experts keeping in mind the design and blue print and the qualities of good evaluation tool.
Arranging the items
When the final selection of items has been completed, arrange the items according to the following guide lines:
• The items should be arranged so that all items of the same type are grouped together.
• The item should be arranged in the order of increasing difficulty.
• It may be desirable to group together items of same pattern. Providing Directions
The direction of an achievement test should be simple and concise general instructions may be given at the beginning of the test. It also include purpose of the test, time allowed to complete the test, how to record the answers and mark allotted for each question and also for each section of the test.
Preparation of Scoring Key and Marking Scheme
Scoring key refers to the prepared list of answers to a given set of objective questions. The examiner compares the answers given by the students with those in the scoring key and thus awards marks to students.
A Marking scheme is essential in the case of short answer type and essay type questions. It indicates
a) The number of steps or learning points expected in the answer.
b) The outline of each point or step expected in the answer.
c) The weightage to e ach point or each step.
d) The level of accuracy expected of each step.
Question wise analysis
Question wise analysis is done by analyzing each question according to objective specification, content, form of question, estimated difficulty level, mark and time required. This helps the teacher to assess the effectiveness of the test item with reference to the blue print. It also gives an insight into the difficulties encountered by students in taking the test
The term achievement is often understood in terms of pupil’s score on a certain school test. Achievement means one’s learning attainments, accomplishments etc. it is related to pupil’s growth in educational situations. Achievement test is an important tool in the school evaluation programme. It is necessary for the teacher to know how far the pupils have attained in a particular subject area.
Types of achievement tests
Achievement tests are of two types. Teacher made tests and standardized tests. Teacher made tests may be divided into oral and written tests.
Teacher made achievement tests
a. Oral tests: it is the oldest form of achievement tests. They are common in lower classes. Viva Voce is an example. An advantage of this test is that a large number of areas can be covered and knowledge of the student can be assessed. But it is difficult to test each pupil on the basis of total curriculum .The examiner does not have any written proof regarding the pupil’s attainment.
b. Written tests: These can be divided into 3 types Essay type, Short answer type, and objective type.
FUNCTIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
• Provide basis of promotion to the next grade.
• Help in finding out at the beginning of the year where each student stands in the various academic areas.
• Help in determining the relative position of a student in a particular subject or area of learning.
• Help the teacher to sees for himself how effectively he is doing, what is getting across to pupils and what is not.• Helps the teacher in identifying pupil’s difficulties and arranging for remedial measures.
• Provides the teacher evidence relating to the realization of objectives, effectiveness of learning activities provided and mode of instruction employed.
• Motivate the students before a new assignment is taken up.
Characteristics of a good Achievement Test
• A good achievement test is tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.
• It should have a description of a measured behaviour.
• It should contain a sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviours.
• It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.
• It is accompanied by norms which are developed at various levels and on various age groups.
• Its instructions in regard to its administering and scoring are so clear that they become standardized for different users.
PREPARATION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST
If the test is to serve as an efficient and effective tool of evaluation its preparation should be based on a number of careful considerations. The preparation of a good test is a systematic process having well defined stages. The important steps envisaged in the preparation of a good achievement test are:
• Planning-preparation of Design and Blue- Print
• Designing the test items.
• Reviewing and editing.
• Arranging the items.
• Providing directions.
• Preparing the scoring key and marking scheme.
• Administering and scoring the test
• Evaluating the test
Planning the Test
Planning implies preparation of design for the test or preparation of blue print.
Preparation of Design
Designing is the first and most important step in the test construction. It is at this stage that we plan to build in the test the important qualities: validity, reliability, objectivity and practicality. In order to accomplish this, the test constructor has to take a number of decisions regarding selection of objective, the selection of the content, form of questions, the difficulty level of test items and the weightage to be allotted to them. The set of these decisions will be called the design of the test.
a) Identification of the objective and allotting weightage to the objectives
The most important step while planning a test or any evaluation tool is the identication of the instructional objectives and stating them in terms of specific observable behaviour .After the objectives are identified and stated, the test maker has to decide their relative weights in the test. The fundamental principle to be observed here is that the test should reflect the actual emphasis being given to various mental processes during instruction. The simplest basis for assigning the weights could be to weigh them in terms of time devoted for their achievement. Weightages could of course be given in numerical terms, distributing 100 points over the objectives, giving the greatest number to those that are to receive the greatest emphasis. Weightage to the Objectives
b) Selection of the content and allotting weightage to the content
Content being the means through which objectives are attained, it becomes very necessary to decide the weights to be given to its different parts. The importance of the unit, time devoted to it during instruction etc. will consider while giving relative weightage to units.
c) Selection of the form of questions and giving weightage to the questions
For testing different abilities and sub units different forms of questions-essay type, short answer type and objective type questions may be judiciously used. According to different objectives and different aspect of content the weightage to be given to each form should be decided the marks are allotted to each form in the basis of time needed for answering, difficulty level, and skill involving. However among the objective type questions multiple choice may be given more weightage.
d) Distribution of difficulty level
The distribution of difficulty level in a test will depend upon the purpose of the test as also on the group of students for whom it is designed to get optimum discrimination through a test; most of its questions should be of average difficulty level. A few easy questions, to motivate below average students and a few difficult ones to challenge the gifted.
e) Preparation of Blue Print
The preparation of the blue print refers to the final stage of the planning of a test. It is a document which gives a complete functional picture of the test. In other words a blue print is a three dimensional chart showing the weightage given to the objectives, content and the form of questions in terms of marks. The units or content spread along the vertical axis while the objectives are listed on horizontal axis. Each column is further subdivided into columns that indicate the forms of question. Thus we get a number of cells each cell having three dimensions, the objective, the content and the form of question. What is required on the part of the test maker is to fit in all the questions in different cells in such a way that the blue print reflects the decisions of the designer.
Uses of Blue Print
• Helps to improve the content validity of the test.
• Defines as clearly as possible the scope and emphasis of the test.
• Relates objectives to the content.
• It provides greater assurance that the test will measure learning outcomes and course content in a balanced manner.
Planning of the test will be completed by the preparation of design and blue print.
Designing the test items
Then comes to the framing of the test items according to the blue print. It is desirable to prepare more items than the requirement of the blue print (at least 20% excess) so that the test maker may be able to choose the best item to suit the allocation in the blue print.
Reviewing and Editing
The items can be reviewed with the help of experts keeping in mind the design and blue print and the qualities of good evaluation tool.
Arranging the items
When the final selection of items has been completed, arrange the items according to the following guide lines:
• The items should be arranged so that all items of the same type are grouped together.
• The item should be arranged in the order of increasing difficulty.
• It may be desirable to group together items of same pattern. Providing Directions
The direction of an achievement test should be simple and concise general instructions may be given at the beginning of the test. It also include purpose of the test, time allowed to complete the test, how to record the answers and mark allotted for each question and also for each section of the test.
Preparation of Scoring Key and Marking Scheme
Scoring key refers to the prepared list of answers to a given set of objective questions. The examiner compares the answers given by the students with those in the scoring key and thus awards marks to students.
A Marking scheme is essential in the case of short answer type and essay type questions. It indicates
a) The number of steps or learning points expected in the answer.
b) The outline of each point or step expected in the answer.
c) The weightage to e ach point or each step.
d) The level of accuracy expected of each step.
Question wise analysis
Question wise analysis is done by analyzing each question according to objective specification, content, form of question, estimated difficulty level, mark and time required. This helps the teacher to assess the effectiveness of the test item with reference to the blue print. It also gives an insight into the difficulties encountered by students in taking the test
Simulated Teaching
Simulated Teaching
Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected physical or abstract system.
Simulation is used in many contexts, including the modeling of natural systems or human systems in order to gain insight into their functioning. Other contexts include simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, training and education. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action.
Simulation in Education and Training
Simulation is often used in the training of civilian and military personnel. This usually occurs when it is prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment. Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system.
Training simulations typically come in one of three categories:
• "live" simulation (where real people use simulated (or "dummy") equipment in the real world);
• "virtual" simulation (where real people use simulated equipment in a simulated world, or virtual environment), or
• "constructive" simulation (where simulated people use simulated equipment in a simulated environment). Constructive simulation is often referred to as "wargaming" since it bears some resemblance to table-top war games in which players command armies of soldiers and equipment that move around a board.
Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The term 'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept rather than simulating a realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real world environment in a simplistic way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key concepts.
Management games (or business simulations) have been finding favour in business education in recent years.[8] Business simulations that incorporate a dynamic model enable experimentation with business strategies in a risk free environment and provide a useful extension to case study discussions.
Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political processes in anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at the high school or university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in which participants assume roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which participants engage in negotiations, alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events.
In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development agencies. The Carana simulation, for example, was first developed by the United Nations Development Programme, and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for training staff to deal with fragile and conflict-affected countries.
Clinical Healthcare Simulators
Medical simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and diagnostic procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in the health professions. Simulators have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such as blood draw, to laparoscopic surgery and trauma care. They are also important to help on prototyping new devices for biomedical engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to research and development of tools for new therapies, treatments and early diagnosis in medicine.
Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy. Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with using standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse.
Another important medical application of a simulator — although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different meaning of simulator — is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in trials of drug efficacy (see Placebo-origins of technical term).
Improving Patient Safety through New Innovations
Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and even death due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training. According to Building a National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook, Jackie, 2004) , “A health care provider’s ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of the most critical factors in creating a positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital emergency room.” simulation. “Deaths due to preventable adverse events exceed deaths attributable to motor vehicle accidents, breast cancer, or AIDS” Eder-Van Hook (2004). With these types of statistics it is no wonder that improving patient safety is a prevalent concern in the industry.
New innovative simulation training solutions are now being used to train medical professionals in an attempt to reduce the number of safety concerns that have adverse effects on the patients. However, according to the article Does Simulation Improve Patient Safety? Self-efficacy, Competence, Operational Performance, and Patient Safety (Nishisaki A., Keren R., and Nadkarni, V., 2007), the jury is still out.
One such attempt to improve patient safety through the use of simulations training is pediatric care to deliver just-in-time service or/and just-in-place. This training consists of 20 minutes of simulated training just before workers report to shift. It is hoped that the recentness of the training will increase the positive and reduce the negative results that have generally been associated with the procedure.
History of Simulation in Healthcare
The first medical simulators were simple models of human patients. Since antiquity, these representations in clay and stone were used to demonstrate clinical features of disease states and their effects on humans. Models have been found from many cultures and continents. These models have been used in some cultures (e.g., Chinese culture) as a "diagnostic" instrument, allowing women to consult male physicians while maintaining social laws of modesty. Models are used today to help students learn the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system and organ systems.[12]
Type of models
Active models
Active models that attempt to reproduce living anatomy or physiology are recent developments. The famous “Harvey” mannikin was developed at the University of Miami and is able to recreate many of the physical findings of the cardiology examination, including palpation, auscultation, and electrocardiography.
Interactive models
More recently, interactive models have been developed that respond to actions taken by a student or physician. Until recently, these simulations were two dimensional computer programs that acted more like a textbook than a patient. Computer simulations have the advantage of allowing a student to make judgements, and also to make errors. The process of iterative learning through assessment, evaluation, decision making, and error correction creates a much stronger learning environment than passive instruction.
Computer simulators
Simulators have been proposed as an ideal tool for assessment of students for clinical skills. Programmed patients and simulated clinical situations, including mock disaster drills, have been used extensively for education and evaluation. These “lifelike” simulations are expensive, and lack reproducibility.
Immersive disease state simulations allow a doctor or HCP to experience what a disease actually feels like. Using sensors and transducers symptomatic effects can be delivered to a participant allowing them to experience the patients disease state. Such a simulator meets the goals of an objective and standardized examination for clinical competence. This system is superior to examinations that use "standard patients" because it permits the quantitative measurement of competence, as well as reproducing the same objective findings.
Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected physical or abstract system.
Simulation is used in many contexts, including the modeling of natural systems or human systems in order to gain insight into their functioning. Other contexts include simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, training and education. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action.
Simulation in Education and Training
Simulation is often used in the training of civilian and military personnel. This usually occurs when it is prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment. Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system.
Training simulations typically come in one of three categories:
• "live" simulation (where real people use simulated (or "dummy") equipment in the real world);
• "virtual" simulation (where real people use simulated equipment in a simulated world, or virtual environment), or
• "constructive" simulation (where simulated people use simulated equipment in a simulated environment). Constructive simulation is often referred to as "wargaming" since it bears some resemblance to table-top war games in which players command armies of soldiers and equipment that move around a board.
Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The term 'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept rather than simulating a realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real world environment in a simplistic way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key concepts.
Management games (or business simulations) have been finding favour in business education in recent years.[8] Business simulations that incorporate a dynamic model enable experimentation with business strategies in a risk free environment and provide a useful extension to case study discussions.
Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political processes in anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at the high school or university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in which participants assume roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which participants engage in negotiations, alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events.
In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development agencies. The Carana simulation, for example, was first developed by the United Nations Development Programme, and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for training staff to deal with fragile and conflict-affected countries.
Clinical Healthcare Simulators
Medical simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and diagnostic procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in the health professions. Simulators have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such as blood draw, to laparoscopic surgery and trauma care. They are also important to help on prototyping new devices for biomedical engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to research and development of tools for new therapies, treatments and early diagnosis in medicine.
Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy. Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with using standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse.
Another important medical application of a simulator — although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different meaning of simulator — is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in trials of drug efficacy (see Placebo-origins of technical term).
Improving Patient Safety through New Innovations
Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and even death due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training. According to Building a National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook, Jackie, 2004) , “A health care provider’s ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of the most critical factors in creating a positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital emergency room.” simulation. “Deaths due to preventable adverse events exceed deaths attributable to motor vehicle accidents, breast cancer, or AIDS” Eder-Van Hook (2004). With these types of statistics it is no wonder that improving patient safety is a prevalent concern in the industry.
New innovative simulation training solutions are now being used to train medical professionals in an attempt to reduce the number of safety concerns that have adverse effects on the patients. However, according to the article Does Simulation Improve Patient Safety? Self-efficacy, Competence, Operational Performance, and Patient Safety (Nishisaki A., Keren R., and Nadkarni, V., 2007), the jury is still out.
One such attempt to improve patient safety through the use of simulations training is pediatric care to deliver just-in-time service or/and just-in-place. This training consists of 20 minutes of simulated training just before workers report to shift. It is hoped that the recentness of the training will increase the positive and reduce the negative results that have generally been associated with the procedure.
History of Simulation in Healthcare
The first medical simulators were simple models of human patients. Since antiquity, these representations in clay and stone were used to demonstrate clinical features of disease states and their effects on humans. Models have been found from many cultures and continents. These models have been used in some cultures (e.g., Chinese culture) as a "diagnostic" instrument, allowing women to consult male physicians while maintaining social laws of modesty. Models are used today to help students learn the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system and organ systems.[12]
Type of models
Active models
Active models that attempt to reproduce living anatomy or physiology are recent developments. The famous “Harvey” mannikin was developed at the University of Miami and is able to recreate many of the physical findings of the cardiology examination, including palpation, auscultation, and electrocardiography.
Interactive models
More recently, interactive models have been developed that respond to actions taken by a student or physician. Until recently, these simulations were two dimensional computer programs that acted more like a textbook than a patient. Computer simulations have the advantage of allowing a student to make judgements, and also to make errors. The process of iterative learning through assessment, evaluation, decision making, and error correction creates a much stronger learning environment than passive instruction.
Computer simulators
Simulators have been proposed as an ideal tool for assessment of students for clinical skills. Programmed patients and simulated clinical situations, including mock disaster drills, have been used extensively for education and evaluation. These “lifelike” simulations are expensive, and lack reproducibility.
Immersive disease state simulations allow a doctor or HCP to experience what a disease actually feels like. Using sensors and transducers symptomatic effects can be delivered to a participant allowing them to experience the patients disease state. Such a simulator meets the goals of an objective and standardized examination for clinical competence. This system is superior to examinations that use "standard patients" because it permits the quantitative measurement of competence, as well as reproducing the same objective findings.
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Objectives
T. C. Thankachan M.A (Pol.), M.A (Socio.), M. Ed, M.Phil
Lecturer, St. Thomas College of Teacher Education, Pala
Education is a process which draws out the best in man with the aim of producing a well-balanced personality - culturally refined, emotionally stable, ethically sound, logically correct, mentally alert, intellectually competent, technically advanced, morally upright, physically strong, socially efficient, spiritually mature, vocationally self-sufficient and internationally liberal. According to Pestalozzi, “Education is a natural, progressive and harmonious development of all the faculties of the individual - head, heart and hand”.
Humans are lifelong learners. From birth onward we learn and assimilate what we have just learned into what we already know. As early as 1956 Educational Psychologist Benjamin S. Bloom divided what and how we learn into three separate domains of learning. There is more than one type of learning.
Bloom's Taxonomy, (in full: 'Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains', or strictly speaking: Bloom's 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives') was initially (the first part) published in 1956 under the leadership of American academic and educational expert Dr Benjamin S Bloom. 'Bloom's Taxonomy' was originally created in and for an academic context, (the development commencing in 1948), when Benjamin Bloom chaired a committee of educational psychologists, based in American education, whose aim was to develop a system of categories of learning behaviour to assist in the design and assessment of educational learning. Bloom's Taxonomy has since been expanded over many years by Bloom and other contributors (notably Anderson and Krathwhol as recently as 2001, whose theories extend Bloom's work to far more complex levels than are explained here, and which are more relevant to the field of academic education than to corporate training and development). A committee of experts, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities:
1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, ie., knowledge, or 'think')
2. Affective domain (values, feelings, emotions and behaviour, ie., attitude, or 'feel')
3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills, or 'do')
Bloom's (and his colleagues') initial attention was focused on the ‘Cognitive Domain’, which was the first published part of Bloom's Taxonomy, featured in the publication: 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl, 1956).
The 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the 'Affective Domain', and was published in 1964.
Various people suggested detail for the third 'Psychomotor Domain', which explains why this domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of RH Dave (1967/70), EJ Simpson (1966/72), and AJ Harrow (1972).
In Bloom’s Taxonomy, this classification of educational objectives includes the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain. Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). The psychomotor domain relates to the learning of physical movements.
This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolute and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains – Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
Knowledge Attitude Skills
1. Recall data
(Knowledge) 1. Receive (awareness) 1. Imitation (copy)
2. Understand
(Comprehension) 2. Respond (react) 2. Manipulation (follow instructions)
3. Apply (use) 3. Value (understand and act) 3. Develop Precision
4. Analyse (structure/elements) 4. Organize personal value system 4. Articulation (combine, integrate related skills)
5. Synthesize (create/build) 5. Characterize (Internalize value system -adopt behaviour) 5. Naturalization (automate, become expert)
6. Evaluate (assess, judge in relational terms)
1. Cognitive domain Objectives- (intellect - knowledge - 'think')
Bloom's Taxonomy 1956 Cognitive Domain is as follows. An adjusted model was produced by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001 in which the levels five and six (synthesis and evaluation) were inverted (reference: Anderson & Krathwohl, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you will see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. Debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, which is interesting given that Bloom's Taxonomy states that the levels must be mastered in order.
In my humble opinion it's possible to argue either case (Synthesis then Evaluation, or vice-versa) depending on the circumstances and the precise criteria stated or represented in the levels concerned, plus the extent of 'creative thinking' and 'strategic authority' attributed to or expected at the 'Synthesis' level. In short - pick the order which suits your situation.
1. Knowledge- recall or recognise information (Key words - arrange, define, describe, label, list, memorise, recognise, relate, reproduce, select, state)
2. Comprehension - understand meaning, re-state data in one's own words, interpret, extrapolate, translate, etc. (Key words - explain, reiterate, reword, critique, classify, summarise, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss, re-write, estimate, interpret, theorise, paraphrase, reference, example)
3. Application - use or apply knowledge, put theory into practice, use knowledge in response to real circumstances, etc. (Key words - use, apply, discover, manage, execute, solve, produce, implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct, perform, react, respond, role-play)
4. Analysis - interpret elements, organizational principles, structure, construction, internal relationships; quality, reliability of individual components, etc. (Key words - analyse, break down, catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate, graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide)
5. Synthesis (create/build) - develop new unique structures, systems, models, approaches, ideas; creative thinking, operations, etc. (Key words - develop, plan, build, create, design, organise, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate, re-arrange, modify)
6. Evaluation - assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgement relating to external criteria, etc. (Key words - review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage)
2. Affective Domain Objectives – (emotional - feel, value, attitudes)
Affective characteristics can be ‘caught’ from an informal environment like extracurricular activities, peer groups, field trips, outings with family members, social gatherings and the media programmes. More structured activities can include sharing of success stories, conversational pieces, news highlights, meeting with actual role models, role playing, simulations, using videos, games, the media, case studies, current affairs, personal encounters, autobiographies, biographies and testimonies from invited speakers to depict the desirable choices of affective characteristics.
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
1. Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: (willingness to recieve) to differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to. (Key words - ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel)
2. Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim. (Key words - react, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform)
3. Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate. (Key words - argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize)
4. Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine. (Key words - build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, prioritize, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare)
5. Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve. (Key words - act, display, influence, solve, practice)
3. Psychomotor domain - (physical - skills - 'do')
The Psychomotor Domain was ostensibly established to address skills development relating to manual tasks and physical movement, however it also concerns and covers modern day business and social skills such as communications and operation IT equipment, for example telephone and keyboard skills, or public speaking. Thus, 'motor' skills extend beyond the originally traditionally imagined manual and physical skills, so always consider using this domain, even if you think your environment is covered adequately by the Cognitive and Affective Domains. Whatever the training situation, it is likely that the Psychomotor Domain is significant. The Dave version of the Psychomotor Domain is featured most prominently here because in my view it is the most relevant and helpful for work- and life-related development, although the Psychomotor Domains suggested by Simpson and Harrow are more relevant and helpful for certain types of adult training and development, as well as the teaching and development of young people and children, so do explore them all. Each has its uses and advantages.
1. Imitation - copy action of another; observe and replicate, etc. (Key words - copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere)
2. Manipulation - reproduce activity from instruction or memory, etc. (Key words - re-create, build, perform, execute, implement)
3. Precision - execute skill reliably, independent of help, etc. (Key words- demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control)
4. Articulation - adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a non-standard objective, etc. (Key words - construct, solve, combine, coordinate, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master)
5. Naturalization - automated, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic level, etc. (Key words - design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage)
Conclusion
Bloom's Taxonomy is a wonderful reference model for all involved in teaching, training, learning, coaching - in the design, delivery and evaluation of these development methods. At its basic level (refresh your memory of the Bloom Taxonomy overview if helpful), the Taxonomy provides a simple, quick and easy checklist to start to plan any type of personal development. It helps to open up possibilities for all aspects of the subject or need concerned, and suggests a variety of the methods available for delivery of teaching and learning. As with any checklist, it also helps to reduce the risks of overlooking some vital aspects of the development required.
T. C. Thankachan M.A (Pol.), M.A (Socio.), M. Ed, M.Phil
Lecturer, St. Thomas College of Teacher Education, Pala
Education is a process which draws out the best in man with the aim of producing a well-balanced personality - culturally refined, emotionally stable, ethically sound, logically correct, mentally alert, intellectually competent, technically advanced, morally upright, physically strong, socially efficient, spiritually mature, vocationally self-sufficient and internationally liberal. According to Pestalozzi, “Education is a natural, progressive and harmonious development of all the faculties of the individual - head, heart and hand”.
Humans are lifelong learners. From birth onward we learn and assimilate what we have just learned into what we already know. As early as 1956 Educational Psychologist Benjamin S. Bloom divided what and how we learn into three separate domains of learning. There is more than one type of learning.
Bloom's Taxonomy, (in full: 'Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains', or strictly speaking: Bloom's 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives') was initially (the first part) published in 1956 under the leadership of American academic and educational expert Dr Benjamin S Bloom. 'Bloom's Taxonomy' was originally created in and for an academic context, (the development commencing in 1948), when Benjamin Bloom chaired a committee of educational psychologists, based in American education, whose aim was to develop a system of categories of learning behaviour to assist in the design and assessment of educational learning. Bloom's Taxonomy has since been expanded over many years by Bloom and other contributors (notably Anderson and Krathwhol as recently as 2001, whose theories extend Bloom's work to far more complex levels than are explained here, and which are more relevant to the field of academic education than to corporate training and development). A committee of experts, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities:
1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, ie., knowledge, or 'think')
2. Affective domain (values, feelings, emotions and behaviour, ie., attitude, or 'feel')
3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills, or 'do')
Bloom's (and his colleagues') initial attention was focused on the ‘Cognitive Domain’, which was the first published part of Bloom's Taxonomy, featured in the publication: 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl, 1956).
The 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the 'Affective Domain', and was published in 1964.
Various people suggested detail for the third 'Psychomotor Domain', which explains why this domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of RH Dave (1967/70), EJ Simpson (1966/72), and AJ Harrow (1972).
In Bloom’s Taxonomy, this classification of educational objectives includes the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain. Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). The psychomotor domain relates to the learning of physical movements.
This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolute and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains – Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
Knowledge Attitude Skills
1. Recall data
(Knowledge) 1. Receive (awareness) 1. Imitation (copy)
2. Understand
(Comprehension) 2. Respond (react) 2. Manipulation (follow instructions)
3. Apply (use) 3. Value (understand and act) 3. Develop Precision
4. Analyse (structure/elements) 4. Organize personal value system 4. Articulation (combine, integrate related skills)
5. Synthesize (create/build) 5. Characterize (Internalize value system -adopt behaviour) 5. Naturalization (automate, become expert)
6. Evaluate (assess, judge in relational terms)
1. Cognitive domain Objectives- (intellect - knowledge - 'think')
Bloom's Taxonomy 1956 Cognitive Domain is as follows. An adjusted model was produced by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001 in which the levels five and six (synthesis and evaluation) were inverted (reference: Anderson & Krathwohl, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you will see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. Debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, which is interesting given that Bloom's Taxonomy states that the levels must be mastered in order.
In my humble opinion it's possible to argue either case (Synthesis then Evaluation, or vice-versa) depending on the circumstances and the precise criteria stated or represented in the levels concerned, plus the extent of 'creative thinking' and 'strategic authority' attributed to or expected at the 'Synthesis' level. In short - pick the order which suits your situation.
1. Knowledge- recall or recognise information (Key words - arrange, define, describe, label, list, memorise, recognise, relate, reproduce, select, state)
2. Comprehension - understand meaning, re-state data in one's own words, interpret, extrapolate, translate, etc. (Key words - explain, reiterate, reword, critique, classify, summarise, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss, re-write, estimate, interpret, theorise, paraphrase, reference, example)
3. Application - use or apply knowledge, put theory into practice, use knowledge in response to real circumstances, etc. (Key words - use, apply, discover, manage, execute, solve, produce, implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct, perform, react, respond, role-play)
4. Analysis - interpret elements, organizational principles, structure, construction, internal relationships; quality, reliability of individual components, etc. (Key words - analyse, break down, catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate, graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide)
5. Synthesis (create/build) - develop new unique structures, systems, models, approaches, ideas; creative thinking, operations, etc. (Key words - develop, plan, build, create, design, organise, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate, re-arrange, modify)
6. Evaluation - assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgement relating to external criteria, etc. (Key words - review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage)
2. Affective Domain Objectives – (emotional - feel, value, attitudes)
Affective characteristics can be ‘caught’ from an informal environment like extracurricular activities, peer groups, field trips, outings with family members, social gatherings and the media programmes. More structured activities can include sharing of success stories, conversational pieces, news highlights, meeting with actual role models, role playing, simulations, using videos, games, the media, case studies, current affairs, personal encounters, autobiographies, biographies and testimonies from invited speakers to depict the desirable choices of affective characteristics.
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
1. Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: (willingness to recieve) to differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to. (Key words - ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel)
2. Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim. (Key words - react, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform)
3. Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate. (Key words - argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize)
4. Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine. (Key words - build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, prioritize, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare)
5. Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve. (Key words - act, display, influence, solve, practice)
3. Psychomotor domain - (physical - skills - 'do')
The Psychomotor Domain was ostensibly established to address skills development relating to manual tasks and physical movement, however it also concerns and covers modern day business and social skills such as communications and operation IT equipment, for example telephone and keyboard skills, or public speaking. Thus, 'motor' skills extend beyond the originally traditionally imagined manual and physical skills, so always consider using this domain, even if you think your environment is covered adequately by the Cognitive and Affective Domains. Whatever the training situation, it is likely that the Psychomotor Domain is significant. The Dave version of the Psychomotor Domain is featured most prominently here because in my view it is the most relevant and helpful for work- and life-related development, although the Psychomotor Domains suggested by Simpson and Harrow are more relevant and helpful for certain types of adult training and development, as well as the teaching and development of young people and children, so do explore them all. Each has its uses and advantages.
1. Imitation - copy action of another; observe and replicate, etc. (Key words - copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere)
2. Manipulation - reproduce activity from instruction or memory, etc. (Key words - re-create, build, perform, execute, implement)
3. Precision - execute skill reliably, independent of help, etc. (Key words- demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control)
4. Articulation - adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a non-standard objective, etc. (Key words - construct, solve, combine, coordinate, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master)
5. Naturalization - automated, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic level, etc. (Key words - design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage)
Conclusion
Bloom's Taxonomy is a wonderful reference model for all involved in teaching, training, learning, coaching - in the design, delivery and evaluation of these development methods. At its basic level (refresh your memory of the Bloom Taxonomy overview if helpful), the Taxonomy provides a simple, quick and easy checklist to start to plan any type of personal development. It helps to open up possibilities for all aspects of the subject or need concerned, and suggests a variety of the methods available for delivery of teaching and learning. As with any checklist, it also helps to reduce the risks of overlooking some vital aspects of the development required.
Professional Development of Teachers - 12-4-2010 (Lecture at Mount Carmel College of Teacher Education for Women, Kottayam
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACERS AND THEIR CONTINUING EDUCATION
T. C. Thankachan M.A (Pol.), M.A (Socio.), M. Ed, M.Phil
Lecturer, St. Thomas College of Teacher Education, Pala
Competency Based Teacher Education
Competency-based education, also known as performance-based education, is a new approach to teaching, having as its core, the ideas of accountability and competencies. With regard to accountability it is argued that teachers should be held ‘accountable’ for their products. This accountability is accomplished by breaking teaching into discrete competencies or behaviors, which can be stated as objectives. In competency-based education, competencies are spelt out so that it is possible to assess student learning through direct observation of student behavior.
Competency-based teacher education is a teacher preparation programme, which intends to develop among the teacher trainees certain, specified teaching skills at mastery level. A Skill is a task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of proficiency, which often uses motor function and requires manipulation of instruments and equipments. The important teaching skills developed at Stanford University, California are given below:
• Stimulus variation
• Set induction
• Closure
• Teacher silence and non-verbal cues
• Reinforcing pupil participation
• Fluency in questioning
• Probing questions
• Use of higher order questions
• Divergent questions
• Reorganizing and attending behaviour
• Illustrating
• Lecturing (explaining)
• Planned repetition
• Completion of communication
Most of the skills in teacher education are based on knowledge, application, interest, appreciation and attitude. Competency is a skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
In the consultations initiated by NCTE at several national seminars, the following ten inter-related categories of competencies have emerged quite prominently;
Contextual competencies
Here the teachers’ job is not only the understanding of total educational system but also of the total social and cultural systems in which they have to operate. They should be able to identify and analyze the factors responsible for obstructing the growth of literacy in the country, reasons for poor enrolment, retention and problems of wastage and stagnation.
Conceptual competencies
It is equally essential to develop in the student teachers the right perspective in education that would enable them to receive new experiences meaningfully and in greater detail and depth, besides helping them thoroughly understand the meaning of education and learning and the impact of socio-economic and socio-cultural factors on them.
Content competencies
Effective teachers are those who acquire sufficient mastery over the subjects they teach. Teachers must have sound knowledge of the content or substance of whatever subjects or sources they teach. Teacher should always be resourceful and let the students drink from running stream rather than from the stagnant pool. A good teacher is always a learner.
Transactional competencies
Teaching as a concept is to be conceived in three stages: planning, teaching and learning process and evaluation. During transaction, the teachers put plan into action and evaluate its impact in terms of competency achievement level at the end of the transaction. In short, the teacher must know what to teach, how to teach and with what results.
Competencies related to other educational activities
The curricular activities are supposed to take care of the cognitive development of the children. Their development in the non-cognitive area is equally important, which deserves due consideration as part of their learning-teaching process and transactional strategies.
Competencies to develop teaching-learning material
Evaluation competencies
Management competencies
Competencies related to working with parents
Competencies related to working with community and other agencies
Competency-based teacher education therefore is unique in the sense that it focuses on the teachers’ or teacher trainees’ acquisition of pre-specified, agreed upon competencies, and demonstration of these competencies through objective assessment.
Competency based teacher training programme in general, has the following components.
• Basic teaching competency – Subject competencies
• Cognitive based competencies – writing instructional objectives, assigning home-work, developing problem solving ability etc
• Performance based competencies – writing on the blackboard, explaining, illustrating with examples, gaining and sustaining attention, fluency in questioning, probing questions, etc.
• Affective based competencies – increasing pupil participation, recognizing, attending behaviour of students, developing social values in students, etc.
• Consequence based competencies – giving reinforcement, evaluating student learning, etc.
• Managerial competencies – managing supportive classroom environment, maintaining classroom discipline, using teaching aids, etc.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACERS THROUGH PRE-SERVICE & IN-SERVICE EDUCATION
1. PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION
India has now accepted a ten years common school system, divided into three stages: pre-school education, elementary education and secondary education. There is provision for two year diversified senior secondary education in which the emphasis is given to subject oriented and disciplinary approach. The maturity and psycho-social make-up of the students and curriculum requirements demand separate teacher education courses to prepare teachers for the three stages of the school education. Pre-service education includes all the stages of education and training that precede the teacher’s entry to his/her employment in a school or in an educational institution. In-service training is the education and training that the teacher receives after he starts career. For giving a clear and quality based teacher education at all levels, we need Pre-service Teacher Education under the following levels:
• Pre-primary School Teacher Education
• Elementary School Teacher Education
• Secondary School Teacher Education
• Senior Secondary School Teacher Education (Academic and Vocational Stream)
• Teacher Education for Physical Education
• Teacher Education for Distance Education and Open learning systems.
The quality of teacher education depends on the quality of teacher educators. Since they play the most important role in the professional education teachers, their education becomes a vital input not only for the implementation of the recommendations of the curriculum framework but also for the improvement of the overall quality of education. The reconsideration of the programmes for the professional preparation of teacher educators has become obligatory.
Pre-service Teacher Education - Some basic principles and considerations
The basic principles and considerations common to teacher education programmes at all stages are as follows:
• Teacher education programmes are programmes for professional preparation of teachers and not programmes of general, academic study. They should accordingly provide for a comprehensive coverage of professional knowledge and understanding of attitudes, interests, values and skills, and have a strong functional orientation.
• Pre-service teacher education is to be considered as an induction and initiation process. It is not aimed at turning out a “finished” teacher. The programme should have an open ended design fostering initiative for further growth and should equip the trainee with the needed skills of self-directed learning through projects, individual assignments, etc.
• The programme should not be rigid and prescriptive but flexible to accommodate local and regional needs, individual differences, creative and innovative ideas and practices.
• Teacher education programmes for the different levels should share a common design with a built in provision for horizontal and vertical mobility to break the isolation from stage to stage.
• Each component of teacher education curriculum should have clearly defined objectives, realistic in its expectations.
• The curriculum should emphasize integration of theoretical understanding with their practical application without overdoing one or the other theory, without practical and functional derivatives and practice without any additional frames of reference, which will be without consequences.
• The programme should provide for comprehensive and continuous evaluation using demonstrable verbal and non-verbal performance criteria.
• The curriculum should give practicum or field work the central place with appropriate weightage considering its crucial importance in teacher education.
• The programme should foster research outlook and the desire to experiment and innovate.
2. IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
Throughout the world, in-service teacher education has acquired an important position for the improvement in the quality of teachers. The National Policy of Education holds it to be a continuation of pre-service teacher education and believes the two to be inseparable like the two sides of a coin. This is the age of knowledge explosion. In addition to explosion of knowledge, there has been another explosion in the means of acquiring knowledge and advancement in teaching and learning procedures. Teachers unaware of the advances and incapable of utilizing them in education would not be able to perform their duties in a rapidly changing learning society. In-service education of teachers therefore becomes essential for bridging the gap in pre-service education and for meeting the demands of the changing educational scenario, its context and concerns.
The term ‘in-service teacher education programme’ connotes any programme provided to teachers already working, with the explicit purpose of updating and renewing their knowledge, technical skills, etc., for maintaining and enhancing their efficiency. Teaching, being a creative and individualistic endeavour, requires periodic rejuvenation of teachers’ attributes and upgrading of their technical know-hows. Even a schoolteacher who has been ‘an outstanding B.Ed student’ who begins his teaching career with great enthusiasm, equipped with an initial amount of technical know-how and the positive feedback received while ‘under training’, needs improvement. Every teacher can perceive his own diminishing ‘impact’ on students. In-service education can be one way of maintaining them at least at the minimum level of efficiency.
In-service education plays a crucial role in teacher development. The National Policy on Education, stipulated that “teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components are inseparable.” UNESCO also stresses the importance of in-service education and observes “in-service training is on the whole as effective as pre-service training, if not more so in its effect on quality”. Professional development of a teacher begins with pre-service and gets renewed through in-service programmes. It does not mean that there is a simple linearity between the two. In-service courses are offered to teachers to upgrade knowledge and pedagogical skills. They are organized to provide them training and acquaint them with emerging trends and new policy issues.
Rabindranath Tagore has said, “a lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn in its own flame.” This aspect of developing skills and attitudes for life long learning need to be reinforced through In-service programmes. It should also try to develop creative tensions. One of the key occupations of in-service programme should be to make teachers reflective learners and to sensitize them towards “deeper mission of schooling”, promoting curiosity, growth of imagination, and refinement of sensibilities. In-service teacher education must develop a symbiotic relationship between action research and classroom practices. And above all it must develop teachers as continuous learners and co-learners. “The capacity to learn is the capacity to alter what one is and has been. It places the present at risk”
Objectives of the In-service Teacher Education
• To foster the desire for life-long learning and to empower teachers ‘learning to learn’ and ‘learning to be’.
• To fulfill the gaps of the pre-service education, remove its inadequacies and make it more realistic.
• To enable the teachers to meet the requirements of changing educational and social contexts and concerns.
• To remove the out-dated mentality of teachers in content and pedagogy, transactional skills and evaluation techniques.
• To acquaint them with the new international experiments in education and absorb their findings in the system incase they are found to be useful.
• To make them aware of new developments in the areas they teach and information they impart to their students.
• To sensitize teachers with the educational problems of the neglected sectors.
• To equip the alternative teachers with the job specific skills and competencies.
• To increase the level of motivation of teachers, to develop self-confidence, to promote the spirit of inquiry and help them to be committed and reflective teachers.
In-service courses are also offered to prepare teachers for new roles. It can be effected through attachment, study visits, exchange programmes. It can be offered through long or short-term orientation or enrichment programmes. In-service courses are:
• Refresher courses
• Summer courses
• Orientation programmes
• Correspondence courses
• Workshops, seminars, symposia, conferences etc.
Training strategies range from lecture cum discussion to project work, library work, group interaction and field visits. In-service education and training programme also uses transactional strategies like case study method, brain storming sessions, panel discussions, seminars, symposia, and small group techniques. The transactional model of in –service education can be classified into three. They are face-to-face model, cascade model and media based open distance model.
Face to face Model: This model offers in-service training programmes at its premises using direct face-to-face training approach. It is most effective when the number of participants is around 30 to 40. Besides lecture – cum – discussion mode, many other transactional strategies are also used, namely project method, case method, library work, peer learning sessions, buzz sessions and other small group techniques. The merit of this approach is that there is a direct and sustained interaction between the participants and the resource persons.
Cascade Model: The number of persons to be trained in this model is very large and the training design is built on two or three tier systems. In the first step, the key resource persons are trained, who trains resource persons and who, in turn, train teachers. The advantage of this model is that a large number of teachers can be trained within a short duration of time. However, it has its limitations. Knowledge and information passed on at the first tier of key resource persons and then at the second tier of resource persons get diluted, resulting in transmission loss of training effectiveness.
Media Based Distance Education Model: With the advent of satellite technology and computers many training programmes are imparted using electronic media. Audio– conferencing and tele–conferencing are being used. In these, the electronic media play the key role and the print material a supportive role. The advantage of this model is that the training objectives can be achieved within a limited time period. The constraint of this approach, however, is the limited availability of the technology itself and its high initial investment. Online in-service courses are yet to come on the Indian scene. IGNOU and Nasik Open University have made some modest beginnings.
Society expects the teachers to have an obligation to become more proficient in their art and science of teaching, more competent and more committed. In-service teacher education with its wider connotation of study leave, exchange programmes, attachment, sabbatical leave, school based programmes, extension programmes, has become very relevant as never before. At present, many agencies are involved in in-service education of the teachers. UGC, NIEPA, NCERT, SCERTs, DIETs, IASEs, (Institute for Advanced Studies in Education), CTEs (Council for Teacher Education), NGOs, University Departments of Education, Academic Staff Colleges, etc. are some of these agencies. For conducting programmes in education, cooperation should be sought from the NGOs, retired teachers, teacher educators and officials of various dep
T. C. Thankachan M.A (Pol.), M.A (Socio.), M. Ed, M.Phil
Lecturer, St. Thomas College of Teacher Education, Pala
Competency Based Teacher Education
Competency-based education, also known as performance-based education, is a new approach to teaching, having as its core, the ideas of accountability and competencies. With regard to accountability it is argued that teachers should be held ‘accountable’ for their products. This accountability is accomplished by breaking teaching into discrete competencies or behaviors, which can be stated as objectives. In competency-based education, competencies are spelt out so that it is possible to assess student learning through direct observation of student behavior.
Competency-based teacher education is a teacher preparation programme, which intends to develop among the teacher trainees certain, specified teaching skills at mastery level. A Skill is a task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of proficiency, which often uses motor function and requires manipulation of instruments and equipments. The important teaching skills developed at Stanford University, California are given below:
• Stimulus variation
• Set induction
• Closure
• Teacher silence and non-verbal cues
• Reinforcing pupil participation
• Fluency in questioning
• Probing questions
• Use of higher order questions
• Divergent questions
• Reorganizing and attending behaviour
• Illustrating
• Lecturing (explaining)
• Planned repetition
• Completion of communication
Most of the skills in teacher education are based on knowledge, application, interest, appreciation and attitude. Competency is a skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
In the consultations initiated by NCTE at several national seminars, the following ten inter-related categories of competencies have emerged quite prominently;
Contextual competencies
Here the teachers’ job is not only the understanding of total educational system but also of the total social and cultural systems in which they have to operate. They should be able to identify and analyze the factors responsible for obstructing the growth of literacy in the country, reasons for poor enrolment, retention and problems of wastage and stagnation.
Conceptual competencies
It is equally essential to develop in the student teachers the right perspective in education that would enable them to receive new experiences meaningfully and in greater detail and depth, besides helping them thoroughly understand the meaning of education and learning and the impact of socio-economic and socio-cultural factors on them.
Content competencies
Effective teachers are those who acquire sufficient mastery over the subjects they teach. Teachers must have sound knowledge of the content or substance of whatever subjects or sources they teach. Teacher should always be resourceful and let the students drink from running stream rather than from the stagnant pool. A good teacher is always a learner.
Transactional competencies
Teaching as a concept is to be conceived in three stages: planning, teaching and learning process and evaluation. During transaction, the teachers put plan into action and evaluate its impact in terms of competency achievement level at the end of the transaction. In short, the teacher must know what to teach, how to teach and with what results.
Competencies related to other educational activities
The curricular activities are supposed to take care of the cognitive development of the children. Their development in the non-cognitive area is equally important, which deserves due consideration as part of their learning-teaching process and transactional strategies.
Competencies to develop teaching-learning material
Evaluation competencies
Management competencies
Competencies related to working with parents
Competencies related to working with community and other agencies
Competency-based teacher education therefore is unique in the sense that it focuses on the teachers’ or teacher trainees’ acquisition of pre-specified, agreed upon competencies, and demonstration of these competencies through objective assessment.
Competency based teacher training programme in general, has the following components.
• Basic teaching competency – Subject competencies
• Cognitive based competencies – writing instructional objectives, assigning home-work, developing problem solving ability etc
• Performance based competencies – writing on the blackboard, explaining, illustrating with examples, gaining and sustaining attention, fluency in questioning, probing questions, etc.
• Affective based competencies – increasing pupil participation, recognizing, attending behaviour of students, developing social values in students, etc.
• Consequence based competencies – giving reinforcement, evaluating student learning, etc.
• Managerial competencies – managing supportive classroom environment, maintaining classroom discipline, using teaching aids, etc.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACERS THROUGH PRE-SERVICE & IN-SERVICE EDUCATION
1. PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION
India has now accepted a ten years common school system, divided into three stages: pre-school education, elementary education and secondary education. There is provision for two year diversified senior secondary education in which the emphasis is given to subject oriented and disciplinary approach. The maturity and psycho-social make-up of the students and curriculum requirements demand separate teacher education courses to prepare teachers for the three stages of the school education. Pre-service education includes all the stages of education and training that precede the teacher’s entry to his/her employment in a school or in an educational institution. In-service training is the education and training that the teacher receives after he starts career. For giving a clear and quality based teacher education at all levels, we need Pre-service Teacher Education under the following levels:
• Pre-primary School Teacher Education
• Elementary School Teacher Education
• Secondary School Teacher Education
• Senior Secondary School Teacher Education (Academic and Vocational Stream)
• Teacher Education for Physical Education
• Teacher Education for Distance Education and Open learning systems.
The quality of teacher education depends on the quality of teacher educators. Since they play the most important role in the professional education teachers, their education becomes a vital input not only for the implementation of the recommendations of the curriculum framework but also for the improvement of the overall quality of education. The reconsideration of the programmes for the professional preparation of teacher educators has become obligatory.
Pre-service Teacher Education - Some basic principles and considerations
The basic principles and considerations common to teacher education programmes at all stages are as follows:
• Teacher education programmes are programmes for professional preparation of teachers and not programmes of general, academic study. They should accordingly provide for a comprehensive coverage of professional knowledge and understanding of attitudes, interests, values and skills, and have a strong functional orientation.
• Pre-service teacher education is to be considered as an induction and initiation process. It is not aimed at turning out a “finished” teacher. The programme should have an open ended design fostering initiative for further growth and should equip the trainee with the needed skills of self-directed learning through projects, individual assignments, etc.
• The programme should not be rigid and prescriptive but flexible to accommodate local and regional needs, individual differences, creative and innovative ideas and practices.
• Teacher education programmes for the different levels should share a common design with a built in provision for horizontal and vertical mobility to break the isolation from stage to stage.
• Each component of teacher education curriculum should have clearly defined objectives, realistic in its expectations.
• The curriculum should emphasize integration of theoretical understanding with their practical application without overdoing one or the other theory, without practical and functional derivatives and practice without any additional frames of reference, which will be without consequences.
• The programme should provide for comprehensive and continuous evaluation using demonstrable verbal and non-verbal performance criteria.
• The curriculum should give practicum or field work the central place with appropriate weightage considering its crucial importance in teacher education.
• The programme should foster research outlook and the desire to experiment and innovate.
2. IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
Throughout the world, in-service teacher education has acquired an important position for the improvement in the quality of teachers. The National Policy of Education holds it to be a continuation of pre-service teacher education and believes the two to be inseparable like the two sides of a coin. This is the age of knowledge explosion. In addition to explosion of knowledge, there has been another explosion in the means of acquiring knowledge and advancement in teaching and learning procedures. Teachers unaware of the advances and incapable of utilizing them in education would not be able to perform their duties in a rapidly changing learning society. In-service education of teachers therefore becomes essential for bridging the gap in pre-service education and for meeting the demands of the changing educational scenario, its context and concerns.
The term ‘in-service teacher education programme’ connotes any programme provided to teachers already working, with the explicit purpose of updating and renewing their knowledge, technical skills, etc., for maintaining and enhancing their efficiency. Teaching, being a creative and individualistic endeavour, requires periodic rejuvenation of teachers’ attributes and upgrading of their technical know-hows. Even a schoolteacher who has been ‘an outstanding B.Ed student’ who begins his teaching career with great enthusiasm, equipped with an initial amount of technical know-how and the positive feedback received while ‘under training’, needs improvement. Every teacher can perceive his own diminishing ‘impact’ on students. In-service education can be one way of maintaining them at least at the minimum level of efficiency.
In-service education plays a crucial role in teacher development. The National Policy on Education, stipulated that “teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components are inseparable.” UNESCO also stresses the importance of in-service education and observes “in-service training is on the whole as effective as pre-service training, if not more so in its effect on quality”. Professional development of a teacher begins with pre-service and gets renewed through in-service programmes. It does not mean that there is a simple linearity between the two. In-service courses are offered to teachers to upgrade knowledge and pedagogical skills. They are organized to provide them training and acquaint them with emerging trends and new policy issues.
Rabindranath Tagore has said, “a lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn in its own flame.” This aspect of developing skills and attitudes for life long learning need to be reinforced through In-service programmes. It should also try to develop creative tensions. One of the key occupations of in-service programme should be to make teachers reflective learners and to sensitize them towards “deeper mission of schooling”, promoting curiosity, growth of imagination, and refinement of sensibilities. In-service teacher education must develop a symbiotic relationship between action research and classroom practices. And above all it must develop teachers as continuous learners and co-learners. “The capacity to learn is the capacity to alter what one is and has been. It places the present at risk”
Objectives of the In-service Teacher Education
• To foster the desire for life-long learning and to empower teachers ‘learning to learn’ and ‘learning to be’.
• To fulfill the gaps of the pre-service education, remove its inadequacies and make it more realistic.
• To enable the teachers to meet the requirements of changing educational and social contexts and concerns.
• To remove the out-dated mentality of teachers in content and pedagogy, transactional skills and evaluation techniques.
• To acquaint them with the new international experiments in education and absorb their findings in the system incase they are found to be useful.
• To make them aware of new developments in the areas they teach and information they impart to their students.
• To sensitize teachers with the educational problems of the neglected sectors.
• To equip the alternative teachers with the job specific skills and competencies.
• To increase the level of motivation of teachers, to develop self-confidence, to promote the spirit of inquiry and help them to be committed and reflective teachers.
In-service courses are also offered to prepare teachers for new roles. It can be effected through attachment, study visits, exchange programmes. It can be offered through long or short-term orientation or enrichment programmes. In-service courses are:
• Refresher courses
• Summer courses
• Orientation programmes
• Correspondence courses
• Workshops, seminars, symposia, conferences etc.
Training strategies range from lecture cum discussion to project work, library work, group interaction and field visits. In-service education and training programme also uses transactional strategies like case study method, brain storming sessions, panel discussions, seminars, symposia, and small group techniques. The transactional model of in –service education can be classified into three. They are face-to-face model, cascade model and media based open distance model.
Face to face Model: This model offers in-service training programmes at its premises using direct face-to-face training approach. It is most effective when the number of participants is around 30 to 40. Besides lecture – cum – discussion mode, many other transactional strategies are also used, namely project method, case method, library work, peer learning sessions, buzz sessions and other small group techniques. The merit of this approach is that there is a direct and sustained interaction between the participants and the resource persons.
Cascade Model: The number of persons to be trained in this model is very large and the training design is built on two or three tier systems. In the first step, the key resource persons are trained, who trains resource persons and who, in turn, train teachers. The advantage of this model is that a large number of teachers can be trained within a short duration of time. However, it has its limitations. Knowledge and information passed on at the first tier of key resource persons and then at the second tier of resource persons get diluted, resulting in transmission loss of training effectiveness.
Media Based Distance Education Model: With the advent of satellite technology and computers many training programmes are imparted using electronic media. Audio– conferencing and tele–conferencing are being used. In these, the electronic media play the key role and the print material a supportive role. The advantage of this model is that the training objectives can be achieved within a limited time period. The constraint of this approach, however, is the limited availability of the technology itself and its high initial investment. Online in-service courses are yet to come on the Indian scene. IGNOU and Nasik Open University have made some modest beginnings.
Society expects the teachers to have an obligation to become more proficient in their art and science of teaching, more competent and more committed. In-service teacher education with its wider connotation of study leave, exchange programmes, attachment, sabbatical leave, school based programmes, extension programmes, has become very relevant as never before. At present, many agencies are involved in in-service education of the teachers. UGC, NIEPA, NCERT, SCERTs, DIETs, IASEs, (Institute for Advanced Studies in Education), CTEs (Council for Teacher Education), NGOs, University Departments of Education, Academic Staff Colleges, etc. are some of these agencies. For conducting programmes in education, cooperation should be sought from the NGOs, retired teachers, teacher educators and officials of various dep
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